| Methods | What Happens When Used: | Appropriate to Use When: | Inappropriate to Use When: |
| Withdrawal | Person tries to solve problem by denying its existence. Results in win/lose. | Issue is relatively unimportant, timing is wrong, cooling off period is needed; short-term use. | Issue is important; when issue will not disappear, but build. |
| Smoothing | Differences are played down; surface harmony exists. Results in win/lose in forms of resentment, defensiveness, and possible sabotage if issue remains suppressed. | Same as above, also when preservation of relationship more important at the moment. | Reluctance to deal with conflict leads to evasion of an important issue; when others are ready and willing to deal with issue. |
| Forcing | One’s authority, position, majority rule, or a persuasive minority settles the conflict. Results in win/lose if the dominated party sees no hope for self. | When power comes with position of authority; when this method has been agreed upon. | Losers have no way to express needs; could result in future disruptions. |
| Compromise | Each party gives up something in order to meet midway. Results in win/lose if “middle of the road” position ignores the real multiplicity of the issue. | Both parties have enough leeway to give; resources are limited; when win/lose stance is undesirable. | Original inflated position is unrealistic; solution is watered down to be effective; commitment is doubted by parties involved. |
| Collaboration | Abilities, values, and expertise of all are recognized; each person’s position, is clear but emphasis is on group solution. Results in win/win for all. | Time is available to complete the process; parties are committed and trained in use of process. | The conditions of time, abilities, and commitment are not present. |
*from Johnson, David W. and Johnson, Frank P. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982.